Cellular Respiration Equation. Anaerobic definition, (of an organism or tissue) living in the absence of air or free oxygen. There are, of course, potential problems associated with the use of such large doses of bicarbonate. Here there are two possible fates for the pyruvate formed from glucose, both of which involve the oxidation of NADH to NAD+: Reduction to lactate, as occurs in human muscle. Glycolysis Occurs in cytoplasm (fluid that fills the inside of the cell). The pyruvate that is produced by glycolysis is decarboxylated to form acetaldehyde, which is then used to oxidize NADH. 400 m dash. It was probably one of the earliest metabolic pathways to evolve and is used by nearly all of the organisms on earth. Exchange of gases: There is an exchange of gases during aerobic respiration where oxygen is absorbed, and carbon dioxide is … Studies suggest that gastric intramucosal pH correlates closely with systemic and organ oxygen consumption, organ failure, and outcome in critically ill humans.330,331 Normalization of gastric mucosal pH has been suggested as one appropriate target during resuscitation of circulatory shock.332 Limited evidence suggests such an approach may be associated with improved survival.333 Further supportive studies are required, however, before this can be accepted as an appropriate therapeutic target. Anaerobic glycolysis is only an effective means of energy production during short, intense exercise, providing energy for a period ranging from 10 seconds to 2 minutes. Sometimes also known as Anaerobic Glycolysis due to the initial process being the same as aerobic glycolysis (as above), only without oxygen. Glycolysis (anaerobic) 2. How is NADH oxidized to NAD+ in cell with functional oxidative phosphorylation? C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 + 6H 2 O → 12H 2 O + 6CO 2 + 36/38ATP. The three steps of aerobic respiration are glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain. In some instances it may prove inefficient to supply a large body mass (i.e., big muscles), with a well-developed blood supply. When resting skeletal muscle is compared to more highly perfused, oxygen-dependent areas of the body (e.g., liver, kidneys, brain, and heart), a key distinction becomes apparent: The liver, kidneys, brain, and heart normally account for only about 7% of the body mass, yet receive almost 70% of the cardiac output (CO), and consume 58% of the O2 utilized in the resting state (Table 24-1). The carbon chains of some amino acids originate α-ketoglutarate, others produce succinate, fumarate, oxaloacetate, or pyruvate (p. 383) and can contribute to glucose formation. Despite its inefficiency, it is a rapid process, approximately 100 times faster than oxidative phosphorylation. In the presence of O 2, NADH, and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration. Anaerobic Respiration Equation. The products of these final steps include a molecule of CO2, a molecule of ethanol, and an NAD+. Glycolysis and Anaerobic Respiration Glycolysis (it literally means glucose degradation) is a metabolic pathway which changes glucose C6H12O6 into pyruvate CH3COCOO + H. None of its nine steps involve the use of oxygen. Name the 2 ways. All cycle intermediates and any compound producing it may become a glucose precursor. Skeletal muscle accounts for nearly 50% of the normal body mass, yet receives only 16% of the CO at rest, and consumes only 20% of the O2 utilized in the resting state. The first equation involves fermentation, which is essentially a dead end process by which the cell regenerates NAD+ by reducing pyruvic acid to lactic acid. b) Under specific conditions in the liver, lactate dehydrogenase can catalyze the above reaction in the reverse direction. In micro-organisms the term fermentation is more commonly used where anaerobic respiration is known after the name of product like alco­holic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation. In these examples, anaerobic glycolysis may be the major, or only, source of energy. You could also read the cellular respiration formulalike this: Glucose + oxygen –> water + carbon dioxide + energy Basically, the cells in the human body and the cells of other heterotrophic organisms utilize glucose and oxygento produce energy, with carbon dioxide and water being produced as a byproduct of this reaction. The consequence is lactic acidosis, a life-threatening condition. This acidity helps destroy the normal tissues present there, providing a space into which the cancer can grow. The difference now is the lack of oxygen meaning the carrier molecule NAD+ cannot offload the Hydrogen … The first site of ATP production in the EMP is from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate. Sprint, men`s events (C-1 200 m canoe single, K-1 200 kayak single, and K-2 200 kayak double). It occurs when limited amounts of oxygen {eq}(O_{2}) {/eq} Oxaloacetate is a common intermediary in the first reactions of gluconeogenesis and the citric acid cycle. Anaerobic cellular respiration and fermentation generate ATP in very different ways, and the terms should not be treated as synonyms. Anand Kumar, Joseph E. Parrillo, in Critical Care Medicine (Third Edition), 2008. Anaerobic glycolysis is the main metabolic pathway used in the setting of limited oxygen supply during exercise. It undergoes a … to replinish the supply of NAD+ in the cell (allows the continuation of glycolysis in anaerobic conditions and therefore the creation of some ATP in anaerobic conditions) in yeast and plant cells, what is the equation for fermentation pyruvate ->-> ethanol + NAD+ + CO2 glucose -> 2 ethanol + 2ATP + 2CO2 Therefore, fatty acids degraded to acetyl-CoA in the organism are nonglucogenic. a) Write the overall balanced equation for the reaction catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase as it occurs following glycolysis under anaerobic conditions in a muscle cell. If oxygen is unavailable, pyruvate may be converted to lactic acid or ethanol and carbon dioxide in order to regenerate NAD\(^+\), called anaerobic respiration. What are the two types of fermentation? Lactate dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.28. Anaerobic glycolysis produces (2 lactate + 2 ATP + 2 H2O + 2 H+) from one glucose molecule. The triose-phosphate has two metabolic choices: (1) to follow the gluconeogenesis pathway by binding to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate or (2) to enter glycolysis to become glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. However, it is not true to say that human metabolism (apart from red blood cells) is ever wholly anaerobic. AP.BIO: ENE‑1 (EU), ENE‑1.K (LO), ENE‑1.K.1 (EK), ENE‑1.K.2 (EK), ENE‑1.L (LO), ENE‑1.L.1 (EK), ENE‑1.L.6 (EK), ENE‑1.L.7 (EK) How cells extract energy from glucose without oxygen. The anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system is dominant from about 10–30 seconds during a maximal effort. The metabolic acidosis that accompanies glycolysis can inhibit key glycolytic enzymes, interfering with Ca2+ transport and binding, and directly with the actin–myosin interaction. Indeed, in the final analysis it is overproduction of acid and lowering of the pH by glycolysis that kills most organisms, including humans. In some cases it may be desirable to reduce the number of mitochondria (because of their bulk) and, in these instances, the cell would be more dependent on anaerobic glycolysis. The oxidative phosphorylation system (Fig. Lactate is exported from muscle and red blood cells, and taken up by the liver, where it is used for the resynthesis of glucose – the Cori cycle, shown in Figure 2. We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. Organi… Anaerobic glycolysis is the transformation of glucose to lactate when limited amounts of oxygen (O2) are available. Regardless of whether anaerobic or aerobic, glycolysis produces acid if lactate is the end product of the pathway. The net end products of glycolysis are: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH. Fabio Pigozzi, ... Attilio Parisi, in Clinical Sports Medicine, 2007, Anaerobic glycolysis allows higher rates of ATP resynthesis than can be achieved by aerobic metabolism, but the capacity of the system is limited and fatigue follows rapidly. Fermentation does not make any ATP but it does make NAD+ so glycolysis can continue to make ATP in the absence of oxygen. When you breathe in, you pull in oxygen and your body uses this oxygen along with the glucose you ingest to create the energy necessary to drive your cell’s activities. Anaerobic glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm when a cell lacks oxygenated environment or lacks mitochondria. Glycolysis simply means the breakdown (lysis) of glucose and consists of a series of chemical reactions that are controlled by enzymes. After glycolysis, there is a so-called “link reaction” that occurs. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Pyruvate can be used for aerobic respiration in the TCA (citric) cycle if oxygen is present but if oxygen is absent, pyruvate is used in anaerobic respiration. (Most, however, of the material that forms the new proteins arises from the cancer cell’s consumption of glutamine, another pathway that is specifically enhanced in cancer cells.) This is the Achilles’ heel of glycolysis. This Case assignment will focus on the steps of cellular respiration. Cells incubated under anaerobic conditions produce large amounts of acid by anaerobic glycolysis. Sprint, women`s events (all events). Glycolysis is a series of biochemical reactions that break down a glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvic acid. Electron Transport Chain 1. 800 m dash. The amount of phosphocreatine in muscle is small, and it is not able to sustain activity independently. Glycolysis consists of 10 different reactions, each catalyzed by a different enzyme. The Cori cycle – anaerobic glycolysis in muscle and gluconeogenesis in the liver. Why the glycolysis, is the most interesting pathway for studies? Because the stomach is easily accessible and may reflect overall splanchnic perfusion during shock,328 and splanchnic perfusion is known to be altered early in shock,329 most clinical work has focused on gastric mucosal pH. electron transport chain → citric acid cycle → glycolysis → acetyl CoA. Expanding the equation to include ADP, Pi, and ATP in their predominant ionization states at physiological pH yields, If this is accepted as the appropriate equation for glycolysis, balanced as it is for mass and charge, the pathway does not produce acid and therefore should have no effect on cellular pH. It produces NAD that goes back into glycolysis. Although anaerobic glycolysis produces only about 5% of the ATP provided during the catabolism of glucose, there are a number of reasons why it is necessary: There are several instances where animals need quick energy. Thus, an animal who initiates a sprint from the resting position relies heavily on anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic glycolysis is a metabolic process in which glucose, a sugar molecule, is broken down without the use of oxygen.Like aerobic glycolysis, which metabolizes glucose in the presence of oxygen, it produces energy for the cells. What Does George Soros' Open Society Foundations Network Fund? Instead, sulfate, nitrate or sulfur is used. The two major groups of skeletal muscle fibers are red, slow-twitch oxidative fibers (type I), and white, fast-twitch glycolytic fibers (type IIB) (see Chapter 80). remember this equation from GCSE (or equivalent): Glycolysis. Many living organisms carry out glycolysis … Diphosphoglyceromutase catalyzes formation of an important glycolytic intermediate in erythrocytes. Summing up the last two equations brings us back to the overall balanced equation that shows acid production by glycolysis: Anaerobic glycolysis therefore produces acid. Effective doses have been large, typically about 0.3 g/kg body mass. The final step in the pathway is conversion of pyruvate to lactate, which leads to accumulation of lactic acid. Optically dense structures such as mitochondria and capillaries would reduce this efficiency (and, if they were present in large amounts, animals might literally “see” those extra mitochondria, as well as the blood flowing by in capillaries). Anaerobic Respiration Equation. 27.2). When performing physically-demanding tasks, muscle tissues may experience an insufficient supply of oxygen, the anaerobic glycolysis serves as the primary energy source for the muscles. A cell that can perform aerobic respiration and which finds itself in the presence of oxygen will continue on to the aerobic citric acid cycle in the mitochondria. While the above equation shows that glycolysis produce two ATP molecules, four molecules are actually produced during the entire process. But the glucose’s carbons are lost if the glucose is being burned to CO2 and water. Glycolysis is the first pathway used to derive energy from carbohydrates; It is a complex process requiring the activity of various enzymes and co-factors ; Glycolysis consists of two parts: The first part requires ATP is invested to provide energy to separate glucose into two 3 carbon sugars. Glycolysis, as we have just described it, is an anaerobic process. ATP, adenosine triphosphate; ADP, adenosine diphosphate. It is no wonder that anaerobic glycolysis is so important in skeletal muscle, since O2 is being utilized by more “vital” organs in the resting state, even though these organs occupy a rather small fraction of the total body mass. Figure 2. Fermentation and anaerobic respiration. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. alcoholic and lactic acid. Table 24-1. 4X400 m relay. Notice in the picture below that glycolysis is happening in the cytoplasm and everything else is occurring inside the mitochondria, which require oxygen. How does fermentation allow glycolysis to continue? NAD+ is required for glycolysis to continue, and is used in the conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. Ingestion of other substances could produce an indirect buffering effect similar to that of sodium citrate. Glucose is sugar, and the same sugar from the photosynthesis equation 6CO2 + 6H20 = C6h1206 + 6 02. Glycolysis is common to most life forms, including aerobic and anaerobic organisms, which shows that it is an ancient mechanism of metabolism. The simplified equation for glycolysis is: C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P -----> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O)COOH + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+. Improvements in performance are typically seen in exercise lasting from about 30 s to a few minutes, but several studies have failed to find positive effects, even when they have used exercise of this duration. anaerobic respiration definition: 1. a chemical process in which energy is produced from food without using oxygen, for example by…. Glucose = (ethanol or lactic acid) + carbon dioxide + energy C6H12O6 = 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP. What Are the Steps of Presidential Impeachment? The conversion of glucose to lactate is known as anaerobic glycolysis, since it does not require oxygen. The acid produced by glycolysis lowers the pH both inside cells where lactate is produced as well as outside where protons can diffuse. Anaerobic Glycolysis. Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose. It is used as the main supply of energy during sustained, dynamic forms of exercise such as walking, but if short bursts of energy are needed, the system is often overwhelmed and anaerobic glycolysis takes over. This Case assignment will focus on the steps of cellular respiration. Glycolysis consists of an energy-requiring phase followed by an energy-releasing phase. Learn more. It is used during high-intensity, sustained, isometric muscle activity.1 It is inefficient from an energetic standpoint and produces only two ATP molecules per glucose molecule, which is 19 times less than the full energy potential of a glucose molecule. Anaerobic reactions occur in the cytoplasm of the cell and aerobic reactions occur in the mitochondria of the cells. Conditions in humans that greatly increase anaerobic glycolysis because of a shortage of oxygen, for example, failure of the respiratory system or the blood circulatory system, often cause the production of more acid than can be handled by the buffering systems of the body. You will (hopefully!) This is certainly the case for the pectoral muscles of game birds (e.g., pheasants), which are frequently used for escape purposes. Anaerobic respiration is the metabolic process in which oxygen is absent, and only the stage of glycolysis is completed. In anaerobic respiration process, glycolysis, which is the first step, is an aerobic cellular respiration. Fermentation normally occurs in an anaerobic environment. Picture 1 : The equation of aerobic glycolysis Image source : www3.med.unipmn.it. This is the Achilles’ heel of glycolysis. The process by which glucose is broken down to release energy is called glycolysis. In this case, NADH is oxidized to NAD+ in the cytosol by converting pyruvate into lactate. Likewise, forcing an area of the heart to obtain all of its energy from glycolysis by occluding a coronary artery causes rapid production of large amounts of acid, which lowers the pH, activates the nerve endings, and registers as pain. However, two molecules are consumed during the preparatory phase, hence, resulting to a net of just two ATP molecules. Acetyl-CoA is not glucogenic. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. The space is needed for other molecules, in this case hemoglobin, which occupies about 33% of the cell interior. 1. Glycolysis is the first pathway used in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. The phosphocreatine pathway acts as a “buffer” of ATP stores by limiting changes in ATP and allowing rapid formation of ATP during high-intensity exercise. The product of glycolysis is pyruvate that used in anaerobic respiration fermentation. Think of the anaerobic glycolytic system as the V6 car engine opposed to the V8 of the ATP-PC system, or the huge diesel engine of the aerobic system. Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration does not need oxygen. Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cell metabolism. Anaerobic Glycolysis: Anaerobic glycolysis is the process of transforming glucose to lactate. This step yields two ATP molecules. However, immediately upon finishing glycolysis, the cell must continue respiration in either an aerobic or anaerobic direction; this choice is made based on the circumstances of the particular cell. In red blood cells, which lack mitochondria, reoxidation of NADH formed in glycolysis cannot be by way of the electron transport chain, as occurs in other tissues. Regional blood perfusion and oxygen consumption in the resting state. Anaerobic respira­tion is the exclusive mode of respiration in some parasitic worms, many prokaryotes, several unicellular eukaryotes and moulds. If a cell able to perform aerobic respiration is in a sit… As lactic acid accumulates, the production of ATP via anaerobic glycolysis starts declining. The process itself does not use oxygen; however, glycolysis can be coupled with additional metabolic processes that are either aerobic or anaerobic. That the conversion of glucose to lactate produces acid is apparent when we write the balanced overall equation for glycolysis in the following manner: Since the empirical formula for glucose is C6H12O6, and there are six carbons, 12 hydrogens, and six oxygens in the products, this equation is balanced for mass and charge. The process does not use oxygen and is therefore anaerobic. Every living organism carries out some form of glycolysis, suggesting this mechanism is an ancient universal metabolic process. Glycolysis. Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration where the glucose molecule is catabolized to form pyruvate through a series of 10 steps. One method is through secondary active transport in which the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. This a good example of a physiological benefit that does not translate into an enhanced sports performance. The simplified equation for glycolysis is: C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P -----> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O)COOH + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+. This is the pathway of fermentation in yeast, which is exploited to produce alcoholic beverages. Practically, each acetate moiety entering the citric acid cycle is completely oxidized. Anaerobic - doesn’t require oxygen Splits a molecule of glucose Glycolysis makes 2 ATP molecules What happens after Glycolysis? Glycolysis is a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions. In order to maintain the oxidation of glucose, and the net yield of 2 × ATP per mol of glucose oxidized (or 3 mol of ATP if the source is muscle glycogen), NADH is oxidized to NAD+ by the reduction of pyruvate to lactate, catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase (Figure 2). Truly anaerobic glycolysis does occur in microorganisms which are capable of living in the absence of oxygen. In liver tissue, for example, glycerol can be phosphorylated to glycerol-3-phosphate, which is subsequently oxidized to DHAP, and then oxidized. The formation of lactate is the fate of much of the pyruvate formed from glucose under conditions of maximum muscle exertion when oxygen is limiting, but as much as possible will continue to undergo complete oxidation. The lactate that the cancer cell produces as the end product of anaerobic glycolysis is exported, producing an acidic environment around the growing front of the tumor. Because anaerobic glycolysis with lactate generation is paralleled by the production of hydrogen ions during hypodynamic shock, noninvasive measurement of tissue pH may provide an attractive, metabolism-based assess ment of adequacy of tissue oxygenation and perfusion. Aerobic Respiration, Part 1: Glycolysis You have read that nearly all of the energy used by living things comes to them in the bonds of the sugar, glucose. Vomiting and diarrhea are symptoms that are frequently reported as a result of ingestion of even relatively small doses of bicarbonate. Lactic acidosis can be dealt with most effectively by re-establishing the supply of oxygen. Glycolysis is the only source of energy in erythrocytes. What Is the Chemical Equation for Glycolysis. One study79 has investigated the potential of sodium citrate as an exogenous buffer, because sodium citrate might be associated with less gastrointestinal discomfort than sodium bicarbonate. In yeast, the anaerobic reactions make alcohol, while in your muscles, they make lactic acid. Several natural products target various proteins participating in cellular glycolysis, by interfering with the glycolytic signaling pathways. Conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate is “physiologically irreversible”. Because fermentation does not require oxygen, it is considered. 11 enero, 2021. Anaerobic Respiration 2. Bluefish, however, contain many type I fibers which provide them with far more aerobic capacity. This system relies on the breakdown of glucose (from carbohydrates) which has been stored in the muscles as glycogen. Indeed, in the final analysis it is overproduction of acid and lowering of the pH by glycolysis that kills most organisms, including humans. Glycolysis is the only pathway that is takes place in all the cells of the body. The oxygen debt after strenuous physical activity is due to an increased rate of energy-yielding metabolism to provide the ATP and GTP that are required for gluconeogenesis from lactate. The first equation involves fermentation, which is essentially a dead end process by which the cell regenerates NAD+ by reducing pyruvic acid to lactic acid. Cells incubated under anaerobic conditions produce large amounts of acid by, Intermediate Reactions in Anaerobic Glycolysis, Autophagy: Cancer, Other Pathologies, Inflammation, Immunity, Infection, and Aging: Role In General Diseases. It is an important metabolic process, because it produces the compounds ATP and NADH, which are used to store energy in the body. For this reason, the true effect remains unclear. For example, the eye (namely the cornea and lens) needs to transmit light signals with high efficiency. Anaerobic respiration. Bender, in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003. glucose--> 2 lactate + 2H+ lactate is released into bloodstream--->liver, kidney, cortex, skeletal muscle How is NADH oxidized to NAD+ in cell with functional oxidative phosphorylation? Anaerobic Respiration Equation. This occurs in microorganisms, … Anaerobic respiration first studied by Kostychev (1902), Anaerobic respiration is an enzyme-controlled, partial break down of organic compounds (food) without using oxygen and releasing only a fraction of the energy. • In eukaryotes, glycolysis takes place in the cytosol • Glycolysis is anaerobic; it does not require oxygen • In the presence of O2, pyruvate is further oxidized to CO2. Sin categoría; anaerobic respiration in yeast equation. In the study of Fahey and collaborators,81 the ingestion of 80% poly-lactate and 20% sodium lactate as a 7% solution in water increased blood pH and bicarbonate compared with ingestion of a glucose polymer drink. In this type of respiration, the process goes through glycolysis, oxidation … Presence of Oxygen: Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen. Larry R. Engelking, in Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry (Third Edition), 2015. glycolysis → acetyl CoA → citric acid cycle → electron transport chain. Glycolysis is a series of biochemical reactions that break down a glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvic acid. Anaerobic glycolysis exclusively uses glucose (and glycogen) as a fuel in the absence of oxygen, or more specifically when ATP is needed at rates that exceed those provided by aerobic metabolism. Work refers to many energy-requiring processes that can only occur as a consequence of ATP hydrolysis, such as muscle contraction, Na+,K+-ATPase activity. In this way anaerobic respiration is quite similar to aerobic respiration. An anaerobic process that allows glycolysis to continue. Conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate in erythrocytes can be prevented with fluoride, thus keeping the plasma glucose concentration from changing in stored blood. In others, the blood supply may be limited because of pathology (e.g., tumors), or physiology (the kidney medulla). The accompanying lesson called anaerobic respiration is the only pathway that is carried by. To continue, and it is also called intra-molecular respiration ( Pfluger 1875. Needed for other molecules, in Textbook of Veterinary physiological Chemistry ( Third Edition ) 2013... We have just described it, is an aerobic cellular respiration is the metabolic process in which oxygen absent... About 0.3 g/kg body mass to a net of just two ATP have. Enhance our service and tailor content and ads, or only, of! Out by the cornea and lens is normally metabolized anaerobically the amount of phosphocreatine in muscle and other tissues able... 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After oxidation to pyruvate by lactate dehydrogenase carbohydrates ) which has been in! All of the cell interior products of these final steps include a molecule CO2. Mitochondria, which shows that it is also called intra-molecular respiration ( Pfluger, 1875 ) assignment will focus the. Even relatively small doses of bicarbonate Food Sciences and Nutrition ( Second Edition ), in! And when Should it be Enacted to continue, and electron transport.! To produce energy in erythrocytes can be dealt anaerobic glycolysis equation most effectively by re-establishing the supply of.! Sulfur is used in the breakdown of glucose to lactate, which is subsequently oxidized DHAP! Oxidative metabolism, which is the first pathway used in the following sports: Athletics: 200 canoe. Cycle, and the glycolysis, which is the metabolic process the inner mitochondrial membrane anaerobic glycolysis equation glucogenic., resulting to a net of just two ATP molecules what happens after glycolysis, is. 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